ഫാ. ജോസഫ്‌ വയലില്‍ CMI

ആരാധനക്രമ വത്സരത്തിലെ കാലചക്രം വീണ്ടും പൂര്‍ത്തിയായി. നവംബര്‍ 28-ന്‌ ആരാധനാക്രമവത്സരത്തിലെ ഒന്നാം ഞായര്‍ ആരംഭിച്ചു. ആഗമനകാലത്തെ ഒന്നാമത്തെ ഞായറാഴ്‌ചയായിരുന്നു നവംബര്‍ 28. അതായത്‌, ക്രിസ്‌മസിന്‌ ഒരുക്കം തുടങ്ങുവാന്‍ സമയമായി.

ഓര്‍മ്മകള്‍ ചെറുപ്പകാലത്തേക്ക്‌ പോകുന്നു. ഡിസംബര്‍ ആരംഭത്തില്‍ കാലാവസ്ഥ തന്നെ മാറിയിരുന്നു. മഞ്ഞും തണുപ്പും അനുഭവപ്പെടുന്ന മാസം. ക്രിസ്‌മസിനുള്ള ആ ത്മീയ ഒരുക്കം നടത്തുവാന്‍ വേണ്ട പ്രോത്സാഹനങ്ങളും മാര്‍ഗനിര്‍ദ്ദേശങ്ങളും ലഭിക്കുന്നതനുസരിച്ച്‌ എല്ലാവരുംതന്നെ പ്രവര്‍ത്തിച്ചിരുന്നു. അന്ന്‌ പഠിപ്പിച്ചിരുന്ന സിസ്റ്റര്‍മാരും ഇതര അധ്യാപകരില്‍ പലരും ക്രിസ്‌മസിന്‌ ആത്മീയമായി ഒരുങ്ങുവാന്‍ വലിയ പ്രചോദനങ്ങള്‍ തന്നിരുന്നു. ചെയ്യാനുള്ള കാര്യം ഇതാണ്‌: ഉണ്ണീശോക്ക്‌ പുല്‍ക്കൂട്‌ ഒരുക്കുക, ഉടുപ്പ്‌ തയ്‌ച്ച്‌ വയ്‌ക്കുക, ഷൂസും സോക്‌സും കളിപ്പാട്ടങ്ങളും കരുതുക. എന്നിട്ട്‌ അതെല്ലാം ക്രിസ്‌മസ്‌ ദിനത്തില്‍ ഉണ്ണീശോയ്‌ക്ക്‌ സമര്‍പ്പിക്കുക. പുല്‍ക്കൂടും ഉടുപ്പും വളയും ഷൂസും സോക്‌സുമെല്ലാം ഉണ്ടാക്കുന്നത്‌ പ്രാര്‍ത്ഥനകള്‍, സുകൃതജപങ്ങള്‍, ആശയടക്കങ്ങള്‍, പരോപകാരപ്രവൃത്തികള്‍, ദിവ്യകാരുണ്യ വിസീന്ത തുടങ്ങിയ ആത്മീയകാര്യങ്ങള്‍ ചെയ്‌തുകൊണ്ടായിരുന്നു. ഉദാഹരണത്തിന്‌, ദിവസം നൂറു സുകൃതജപങ്ങള്‍ വീതം 24 ദിവസം ചൊല്ലി 2400 സുകൃതജപങ്ങള്‍കൊണ്ട്‌ ഒരു പുല്‍ക്കൂട്‌. ദിവസം പത്ത്‌ ആശയടക്കങ്ങള്‍ വീതം 24 ദിവസം ചെയ്‌തുകൊണ്ട്‌ 240 ആശയടക്കങ്ങള്‍കൊണ്ട്‌ ഉണ്ണീശോക്ക്‌ ഒരു ഉടുപ്പ്‌. ദിവസം ഏതാനും ത്യാഗപ്രവൃത്തികള്‍ ചെയ്‌തുകൊണ്ട്‌ ഉണ്ണീശോക്ക്‌ ഒരു വള. ഉദാഹരണത്തിന്‌, കുടുംബപ്രാര്‍ത്ഥനയുടെ സമത്ത്‌ മുട്ടുകുത്തി നില്‍ക്കുക, ഭക്ഷണം കഴിക്കുമ്പോള്‍ ഒരു നേരമെങ്കിലും അല്‍പം കുറച്ചു കഴിക്കുക അഥവാ ഒരിനം വേണ്ടെന്ന്‌ വ യ്‌ക്കുക; ചെയ്യാന്‍ മടി തോന്നുന്ന ഒരു കാര്യം ചെയ്യുക എ ന്നിങ്ങനെ. ഇത്തരം ത്യാഗപ്രവൃത്തികള്‍ എല്ലാ ദിവസവും ചെയ്‌ത്‌ അതുകൊണ്ട്‌ ഒരു വളയുണ്ടാക്കി ക്രിസ്‌മസിന്‌ ഉണ്ണീശോക്ക്‌ നല്‍കുക. ഇത്തരം കാര്യങ്ങള്‍ സിസ്റ്റര്‍മാരും ചില അധ്യാപകരും സണ്‍ഡേ സ്‌കൂള്‍ അധ്യാപകരും മറ്റും പറഞ്ഞ്‌ തരുമായിരുന്നു. ചെയ്യാന്‍ പ്രോത്സാഹിപ്പിക്കുമായിരുന്നു. ചെയ്യുന്നുണ്ടോ എന്ന്‌ അന്വേഷിക്കുമായിരുന്നു. ഒട്ടുമിക്ക കുട്ടികളും ഇതെല്ലാം വിശ്വസ്‌തതയോടും സന്തോഷത്തോടെയും ആവേശത്തോടെയും ചെയ്യുമായിരുന്നു. ഈ സുകൃതങ്ങളും ത്യാഗപ്രവൃത്തികളും കൊണ്ട്‌ ഉണ്ടാക്കിയ പുല്‍ക്കൂടും ഉടുപ്പും വളയും ചെരുപ്പും മറ്റുമായിട്ടാണ്‌ ക്രിസ്‌മസിന്‌ പള്ളിയില്‍ പോയിരുന്നത്‌. രാത്രിയില്‍ പള്ളിയില്‍ പോകാനായിരുന്നു വലിയ ഉത്സാഹം. രാത്രി ഉറങ്ങാന്‍ കിടന്നാലും പലപ്പോഴും പള്ളിയില്‍ പോകാനുള്ള ത്രില്‍ കാരണം, സമയമായോ എന്ന ആകാംക്ഷ കാരണം ശരിക്കും ഉറങ്ങിയിരുന്നില്ല. ഇന്നത്തെപ്പോലെ വാച്ചും ടൈംപീസും ഒന്നുമില്ല. പള്ളിയില്‍ മണിയടിക്കും. കതിനാവെടി വയ്‌ക്കും. ഈ ശബ്‌ദം കേട്ടാണ്‌ സമയം മനസിലാക്കി പൊയ്‌ക്കൊണ്ടിരുന്നത്‌. കപ്പളത്തിന്റെ തണ്ട്‌ മുറിച്ചെടുത്ത്‌, അതില്‍ മണ്ണെണ്ണ ഒഴിച്ച്‌, തുണിയുടെ തിരിവച്ച്‌, ആ തീപ്പന്തവുമായിട്ടായിരുന്നു പള്ളിയില്‍ പോക്ക്‌. ഈ പന്തം ആയിരുന്നു രാത്രിയില്‍ നടന്നുപോകാന്‍ വെളിച്ചം തന്നിരുന്നത്‌. ഇന്നും ഇതെല്ലാം ഓര്‍ ക്കുമ്പോള്‍ സന്തോഷം തോന്നുന്നു.

കാലം പോയപ്പോള്‍ ഇത്തരം പല ശീലങ്ങളും കൈമോശം വന്നു. ആഗമനകാലത്തെ ഓരോ ദിവസവും സുകൃതജപങ്ങള്‍, ത്യാഗപ്രവൃത്തികള്‍, പരോപകാര പ്രവൃത്തികള്‍ തുടങ്ങിയവയാല്‍ ഉണ്ണീശോക്ക്‌ പുല്‍ക്കൂടും ഉടുപ്പും വളയും മറ്റും ഉണ്ടാക്കണം എന്ന കാര്യം ഇന്ന്‌ എത്ര മുതിര്‍ന്നവര്‍ ചെയ്യുന്നുണ്ട്‌? എത്ര മാതാപിതാക്കള്‍ ചെയ്യുന്നുണ്ട്‌? എത്ര മാതാപിതാക്കള്‍ മക്കള്‍ക്ക്‌ ഇത്‌ പറഞ്ഞുകൊടുത്ത്‌, പ്രോത്സാഹനം കൊടുത്ത്‌ ചെയ്യിക്കുന്നുണ്ട്‌? എത്ര സിസ്റ്റര്‍മാര്‍ കുട്ടികള്‍ക്ക്‌ ഇത്‌ പറഞ്ഞുകൊടുക്കുന്നുണ്ട്‌? എത്ര അല്‌മായ അധ്യാപകര്‍ തങ്ങളുടെ വിദ്യാര്‍ത്ഥികള്‍ക്ക്‌ ഇവ പറഞ്ഞുകൊടുക്കുന്നുണ്ട്‌? എത്ര സണ്‍ഡേ സ്‌കൂള്‍ അധ്യാപകര്‍ ഇവ ചെയ്യുകയും ചെയ്യുവാന്‍ വിദ്യാര്‍ത്ഥികളെ പ്രോത്സാഹിപ്പിക്കുകയും ചെയ്യുന്നുണ്ട്‌? പോട്ടെ, എത്ര വൈദികരും സിസ്റ്റര്‍മാരും ഇവ ചെയ്യുകയും ചെയ്യുവാന്‍ പറഞ്ഞുകൊടുത്ത്‌ പ്രചോദിപ്പിക്കുകയും ചെയ്യുന്നുണ്ട്‌?

ചെയ്യുന്നവരും ചെയ്യുവാന്‍ പറഞ്ഞുകൊടുക്കുന്നവരും ചെ യ്യുവാന്‍ പ്രചോദനം നല്‍കുന്നവരും തീര്‍ച്ചയായും മേല്‍പ്പറഞ്ഞ എല്ലാ വിഭാഗങ്ങളിലും ഉണ്ട്‌ എന്ന്‌ സന്തോഷത്തോടെ പറയട്ടെ. വലിയ തീക്ഷ്‌ണതയോടെ ഈ വിധം ക്രിസ്‌മസിന്‌ ഒരുങ്ങുന്ന വൈദികരും സിസ്റ്റര്‍മാരും മാതാപിതാക്കളും ഇതര മുതിര്‍ന്നവരും നവീകരണാനുഭവത്തിലേക്ക്‌ വന്ന യുവജനങ്ങളും കുഞ്ഞുങ്ങളും ഉണ്ട്‌. എന്നാല്‍ ഇങ്ങനെ കാര്യമായ ഒരുക്കങ്ങള്‍ ചെയ്യാത്തവരും എല്ലാ വിഭാഗങ്ങളിലും ഉണ്ട്‌.
ഈ സാഹചര്യത്തില്‍, ഏതാനും നിര്‍ദ്ദേശങ്ങള്‍ പറയട്ടെ.

എല്ലാ വൈദികരും സിസ്റ്റര്‍മാരും വൈദിക-സന്യാസ പരിശീലനാര്‍ത്ഥികളും ഒരു തീരുമാനമെടുക്കുക: ഈ ക്രിസ്‌മസിന്‌ ഉണ്ണിക്ക്‌ സമര്‍പ്പിക്കുവാന്‍ ഞാന്‍ ഒരു പുല്‍ക്കൂടും ഒരു സെറ്റ്‌ ഉടുപ്പുമെങ്കിലും എന്റെ പ്രാര്‍ത്ഥന, സുകൃതജപങ്ങള്‍, ആശയടക്കങ്ങള്‍, പരോപകാര പ്രവൃത്തികള്‍ എന്നിവ വഴി ഉണ്ടാക്കും. ഡിസംബര്‍ ഒന്നാം തിയതി തന്നെ ഇതിന്റെ പണി ഞാന്‍ തുടങ്ങുകയും ചെയ്യും.
എല്ലാ വികാരിയച്ചന്മാരും ഇത്തരം പുല്‍ക്കൂടും ഉടുപ്പും മറ്റും ഈവിധം തയാറാക്കുവാന്‍ ആഗമനകാലത്തിന്റെ തുടക്കത്തില്‍ത്തന്നെ വിശ്വാസികളെ പ്രേരിപ്പിക്കുകയും പ്രോ ത്സാഹിപ്പിക്കുകയും ചെയ്യുക. ഇത്തരം കാര്യങ്ങള്‍ പള്ളിപ്രസംഗം, കുടുംബയോഗത്തില്‍ സന്ദേശം എന്നിവവഴി നല്‍കുവാന്‍ സാധിക്കും.

എല്ലാ മാതാപിതാക്കളും സ്വന്തം ജീവിതത്തില്‍ ഒരു പുല്‍ക്കൂട്‌ ഉണ്ടാക്കും എന്ന്‌ തീരുമാനിച്ച്‌ പ്രവര്‍ത്തിച്ചു തുടങ്ങുക. മാതാപിതാക്കള്‍, പ്രത്യേകിച്ച്‌ കൊച്ചുകുട്ടികളുടെ മാതാപിതാക്കള്‍ മക്കള്‍ക്ക്‌ ഇത്തരം പുല്‍ക്കൂട്‌, ഉടുപ്പ്‌, വള, ചെരുപ്പ്‌ എന്നിവയെപ്പറ്റി പറഞ്ഞുകൊടുക്കുകയും പ്രാവര്‍ത്തികമാക്കാന്‍ മക്കളെ പ്രോത്സാഹിപ്പിക്കുകയും ചെയ്യുക. അവര്‍ ഇത്‌ ചെയ്യുന്നുണ്ടോ എന്ന്‌ ഇടയ്‌ക്കിടയ്‌ക്ക്‌ അന്വേഷിക്കുക. ഉണ്ടെങ്കില്‍ പ്രോത്സാഹിപ്പിക്കുക. ഇല്ലെങ്കില്‍ വീണ്ടും ചെയ്യാനുള്ള പ്രേരണ നല്‍കുക. സുകൃതജപം, ആശയടക്കം തുടങ്ങിയ വാക്കുകളോ അതിന്റെ അര്‍ത്ഥമോ ഇന്നത്തെ മഹാഭൂരിപക്ഷം കുട്ടികള്‍ക്കും അറിഞ്ഞുകൂടാ എന്ന്‌ ഖേദത്തോടെ പറയട്ടെ. ചില അവസരങ്ങളില്‍, കുമ്പസാരിച്ചു കഴിയുമ്പോള്‍ പ്രായശ്ചിത്തമായി ഹൈസ്‌കൂളിലും മറ്റും പഠിക്കുന്ന കുട്ടികള്‍, യുവജനങ്ങള്‍ തുടങ്ങിയവരോട്‌ പ്രായശ്ചിത്തമായി ഏതാനും ആശയടക്കങ്ങള്‍ ചെയ്യുക അല്ലെങ്കില്‍ ഒരു സുകൃതജപം ഇത്ര തവണ ചൊല്ലുക എന്നൊക്കെ പറഞ്ഞിട്ടുണ്ട്‌. അവരില്‍ പലരും പുറത്തിറങ്ങി സിസ്റ്റര്‍മാരോടും മുതിര്‍ന്നവരോടും മറ്റും സുകൃതജപം എന്നുവച്ചാല്‍ എന്താണ്‌, ആശയടക്കം എന്നുവച്ചാല്‍ എന്നാണ്‌ എന്നൊക്കെ ചോദിച്ചതായി മനസിലാക്കാന്‍ കഴിഞ്ഞു. അതിനര്‍ത്ഥം, അ ത്തരം ആത്മീയാനുഷ്‌ഠാനങ്ങള്‍ തന്നെ അന്യംനിന്ന്‌ പോകുന്നു അഥവാ അന്യം നിന്ന്‌ പോയിരിക്കുന്നു എന്നാണ്‌.

യുവജനങ്ങളും ഇങ്ങനെ ഒരു പുല്‍ക്കൂട്‌പണി ആരംഭിക്കുക. തങ്ങളുടെ ചില സുഹൃത്തുക്കളോടെങ്കിലും ഇങ്ങനെ ഒരു പുല്‍ക്കൂടിന്റെ കാര്യം പറഞ്ഞ്‌, അത്‌ ഉണ്ടാക്കുവാന്‍ അവരെ പ്രേരിപ്പിക്കുക.
ചുരുക്കത്തില്‍, ഈ വര്‍ഷത്തെ ക്രിസ്‌മസിന്‌ പള്ളിയില്‍ പോകുമ്പോള്‍ ആരും വെറും കയ്യോടെ പോകരുത്‌. നേര്‍ച്ചയിടാന്‍ കൈവശം ഇത്തിരി സുകൃതങ്ങളുടെ, പ്രാര്‍ത്ഥനകളുടെ, ആശയടക്കങ്ങളുടെ, പരോപകാര പ്രവൃത്തികളുടെ ഒരു സമ്മാനവുമായി പള്ളിയില്‍ പോകാന്‍ കഴിയണം. അത്‌ ഉണ്ണിക്ക്‌ സമര്‍പ്പിച്ച്‌ പ്രാര്‍ത്ഥിച്ച്‌ അനുഗ്രഹം വാങ്ങി തിരികെപോരണം. ആട്ടിടയന്മാരും പൂജരാജാക്കന്മാരുമെല്ലാം ഉണ്ണിയെ കണ്ടിട്ടു പോന്നപ്പോള്‍ അനുഭവിച്ച ആത്മീയ സന്തോഷം, എങ്കില്‍ ഈ ക്രിസ്‌മസിന്‌ നമുക്കും ഉണ്ടാകും. ആകയാല്‍ ഒന്നാം തിയതിതന്നെ പുല്‍ക്കൂടിന്റെയും ഉടുപ്പിന്റെയുമൊക്കെ പണി തുടങ്ങാം.

In Time of Difficulties, don't ever say "God I have a Big Problem". But instead say "Hey Problem, I have a Big God".

THE VEDAS

Indian literature begins with the Vedas (Veda is a Sanskrit word meaning knowledge). The Vedas were a series of sacred texts used in religious rituals and sacrifices and composed in an early form of Sanskrit (Vedic Sanskrit). Even in modern times, the Vedas are regarded as the cornerstone of Hinduism.
The oldest Vedic texts are those of the Rig Veda, dating from about the 1300's B.C. These are mostly mythical poems to the great Vedic gods--Indra the Warrior, Agni the god of fire, Surya the sun god, and Varuna the upholder of heaven and earth.

The later books of the Vedas are the Yajur Veda (mainly formulas for sacrifice), Sama Veda (poetry from the Rig Veda adapted to melodies as priestly chants), and Atharva Veda (verses dealing with peace and prosperity and the daily life of human society).

Several prose sequels to the Vedas were written in the period before the Christian era. First were the Brahmanas (Priestly Explanations of Doctrine) and the Aranyakas (Forest Treatises), which discuss the function and purpose of sacrificial rites and consider the relationship of man and the universe.
A later group of texts, the Upanishads (Spiritual Teachings), written in prose and poetry, continues this enquiry into the nature of life. The Upanishads are great classics of spiritual and philosophical thought.

Rig Veda Being the oldest of the Vedic literature, it is most important because it is the valuable record of ancient India. It has ten books or mandalas containing 1028 hymns by the successive generations of Rishis (sages). As the Aryans had no script of their own, the hymns of the Rig Veda were memorized and passed on orally from one generation to the other before being recorded in written form at a much later stage. It has many mantras like the Gayatri mantras which is resided by the Hindus in their houses. It is said to represent the voice of Gods. Many hymns were written in the praise of different Gods of nature. The Rig-Veda gives us information not only on the early Vedic religion and their Gods but also on the social condition of those days. It points to settled people, and organized society and full grown civilization.Sam Veda It mainly contains verses taken from Rig-Veda with reference to Soma sacrifices. Its hymns are set to music. The Sam Veda has hymns meant for the priest only who sang them at the time of the performance of Yajnas. It tells us much about the music of ancient Aryans.Yajur Veda It contain hymns concerning sacrifices. The study of this Veda shows that the Aryans had acquired knowledge of sacrifices by that time. It depicts changes in social and religious conditions which had come in the society from the period of Rig-Veda. The Yajur Veda has two parts - the white and the black. The former consists of hymns and latter contains commentaries.Atharva Veda It contains mantras on three topics - gnana (Knowledge), Karma (deeds), and Upasana (invocation). It is important from the point of view of knowing the history of science in India. It is also collection of spells and charms which are popular among the people. This Veda throws light on the beliefs of the people some of the Mantras are meant to bring success in life, while some where used to ward off evil spirits responsible for disease and sufferings. This Veda believed to be a later composition and contains some non-Aryan material. It seems to have been composed when a synthesis of Aryan and non-Aryan cultures took place.

The Great Epics

Early Indian literature after the Vedas is dominated by two great Sanskrit epic poems, the Ramayana (The Story of Rama), and the Mahabharata (The Great War of the Bharatas). The poet Valmiki is known as the poet of the Ramayana. But both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were composed over long periods by many poets. Poets wrote these epics for oral transmission by singers and storytellers. These two epics of ancient India have universal appeal. They have been translated and retold in all the Indian and all the important foreign languages.

The Ramayana consists of 24,000 verses divided into seven books, called kandas. Its form, kavya (epic poetry), means that it instructs while it entertains. The Ramayana tells the story of the righteous king Rama and his battle with the demon Ravana. The demon steals Rama's wife, Sita, and holds her captive in Lanka (now Sri Lanka). Rama, helped by the monkey army of Hanuman, rescues Sita. His victory over Ravana symbolizes the triumph of righteousness over evil. Rama was originally a folk hero but was later portrayed as an incarnation of the god Vishnu.

The Mahabharata is the world's longest poem, consisting of nearly 100,000 verses. It took shape gradually between about 700 B.C. and A.D. 400. Hinduism developed into its classical form during the same period. The main story of the Mahabharata is a war over succession to the throne between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, two branches of a royal family. The god Krishna sides with the Pandavas, who are themselves depicted as gods in later additions to the story.
Embedded within the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad Gita (The Song of the Lord), the most influential of all Hindu texts, in which Krishna explains to the Pandava prince, Arjuna, the meaning of dharma (religious duty). Krishna teaches Arjuna, who is dejected at having to fight his own relatives in the war, that everyone must follow the course of duty without thinking about its results.


INDIAN ART

The art treasures of India are among the greatest in the world. They include 4,000-year old statuettes of lifelike vitality, fine paintings, and many types of images of Buddha. They also include temples carved into solid rock, huge temples with elaborately sculptured towers, and graceful mosques, palaces and tombs, all ornamented with delicate decorative work. Archaeologists have unearthed ruined cities from a period around 2000 B.C. known as the Harappan civilization. Objects found there and at other sites served, both, religious and practical purposes. After , this time, there is a break in the record of artistic objects. Very few objects from the period 1600-500B.C. have been found. But, from about 200 B.C., an unbroken sequence of art objects survives to give art,historians, some idea of the long rich tradition of Indian art.

Paintings

The roots of the Indian Painting can be traced back to the days of the Indus Valley civilization. Paintings on pottery reflect a keen sense of painting among the Indus valley people. The paintings of the Ajanta and Ellora caves exhibit the creative genius of the artists of that period. Enduring tough weather conditions, these paintings have, surprisingly, survived for such a long period of time. A better perspective to study the painting forms of the whole of the nation is to divide it into various heads such as the Paintings of North India, South India, East India, West India, Central and Deccan India and under some special captions such as the Rajasthani Paintings, Mughal Paintings and the Colonial and Modern Paintings.





Sculpture

Sculpture first flourished in India in the 2000's B.C., during the Harappan period. Little sculpture survives from the period immediately after that. The beginning of traditional Indian sculpture can be dated to the 300's B.C. and to the establishment of empires that ruled most of south Asia. Much of India's sculpture was made for religious buildings. Before about A.D. 1200, the main religions were Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. Training in the techniques of sculpture was passed down within the family. The subheads under which the Sculpture section has been divided are Indus Valley; Buddhist and Jain; Hindu; Islamic, Colonial and Modern.

Dance Forms

Classical Indian dances are among the most graceful and beautiful in the world. They all make use of a complicated, visual language, consisting of hand gestures, body movements, and postures. The job of the artist is to take in emotions, such as amazement, anger, hatred, humour, or love, and communicate them to the audience. The major classical dance forms of India are Bharata Natyam, Kathak, Kathakali, Manipuri, Orissi and Kuchipudi.

Indian Theatre

Indian theatre is one of the oldest in the world. The origin of Indian theatre can be linked with the tale that the fifth Veda 'Natya' originated as per the desire of Brahma to entertain Gods. Its exact origins are uncertain, but sometime between 200 B.C. and A.D. 200, the wise man Bharata wrote the Natyasastra, an essay which established traditions of dance, drama, makeup, costume, and acting. Explore the world of Indian theatre, its various stages of development and view some of its masterpieces.

A BRIEF SUMMORY OF INDIAN HISTORY

India is a large country in southern Asia. It is the second largest country in the world in population. The river valleys of northeastern India are among the most densely populated places in the world. India ranks seventh in the world in area.
India occupies a strategic position in Asia, looking across the seas to Arabia and Africa on the west and Burma , Malaysia and the Indonesian archipelago on the east. Geographically, the Himalayan range keeps India apart from the rest of Asia.

India has great varieties and differences in both its land and its people. The land includes desert, jungles, and one of the world's rainiest areas. India also has broad plains, mighty rivers, the tallest mountain system in the world, and tropical lowlands. The people of India belong to many different ethnic groups and religions. They speak 14 major languages and more than 1,000 minor languages and dialects.

Location India lies to the north of the equator between 8 degree 4 minutes and 37 degree 6 minutes north latitude and 68 degree 7 minutes and 97 degree 25 minutes east longitude. It is bounded on the south-west by the Arabian sea and on the south-east by the Bay of Bengal. On the north, north-east and north-west lie the Himalayan ranges. Kanyakumari constitutes the southern tip of the Indian peninsula where it gets narrower and narrower, loses itself into the Indian Ocean.

Extent India measures 3214 Kms from north to south and 2933 Kms from east to west with a total land area of 3,287,263 sq kms. It has aland frontier of 15,200 kms and a coast line of 7516.5 kms. Andaman and Nicobar islands in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep in the Arabian sea are parts of India.
Neighbours India shares its political borders with Pakistan and Afghanistan on the west and Bangladesh and Burma on the east. The northern boundary is made up of the Sinkiang province of China, Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan. India is separated from Sri Lanka by anarrow channel of sea formed by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar.

Physiographic regions The mainland comprises seven regions.
Northern mountains including the Himalayas and the north-eastern mountain ranges,

The Indo-Gangetic plain,
The desert,
Central Highlands and Peninsular plateau,
East coast,
West coast,
Bordering seas and islands.
Mountain ranges They are seven :
1. The Himalayas,
2. The Patkai and other ranges bordering India in the north and north-east,
3. The Vindhyas which separates the Indo-Gangetic plain from the deccan plateau,
4. The Satpura,
5. The Arravali,
6. The Sahyadri which covers the eastern fringe of the west coast plains and
7. The Eastern Ghats, irregularly scattered on the east coast and forming the boundary on the east coast plain.
8. The Himalayas, the highest mountain ranges in the world, is one of the world's youngest mountain ranges. It runs practically uninterrupted for a distance of some 2500 km and covers an area of about 500,000 sq km. It contains the world's highest mountain peak, Mt Everest and some ten peaks, rising above 7,500 m. It appears to have risen as a result of collision between the drifting Indian peninsular plate and the Tibetan plate of South Asia about 50 million years ago. The Himalayas reached their present height much later.
9. Patkai and allied mountain ranges run along the Indo-Bangladesh-Burma border and may be collectively called Purvanchal or eastern mountains. These ranges forming an arc must have come into existence along with the Himalayas.
10. Aravalli range in north-western India is one of the oldest mountain systems in the world. The present Aravalli range is only a remnant of the gigantic system that existed in pre-historic times with several of its summits rising above the snow line and nourishing glaciers of stupendous magnitude which in turn fed many great rivers.
11. Vindhyanchal range traverses nearly the whole width of peninsular India - a distance of about 1050 km with an average elevation of about 300 metres. The Vindhyanchal range is appears to have been formed by the wastes created by the weathering of the ancient Aravalli ranges.
12. Satpura range, another ancient mountain system extends for a distance of 900 km with many of its peaks rising above 1000 metres. It is triangular in shape, with its apex at Ratnapuri and two sides running parallel to the Narmada and Tapti rivers.
13. Sahyadri or Western Ghats, with an average height of 1200 metres, is about 1600 km long and runs along the western border of the Deccan plateau, from the mouth of the river Tapti to Kanyakumari. It stands overlooking the Arabian Sea.
14. Eastern Ghats bordering the East Coast of India, is cut up by the powerful rivers into discontinuous block of mountains. In its northern parts between the Godavari and the Mahanadi rivers it rises to above 1000 metres.
15. The Desert region can be divided into two parts - the great desert and the little desert. The great desert extends from the edge of the Rann of Kachchh beyond the Luni river northward. the whole of Rajasthan-Sind frontier runs through this. The little desert extends from the Luni between Jaisalmer and Jodhpur up to northern wastes.
Watersheds There are mainly three watersheds.
Himalayan range with its Karakoram branch in the north,
Vindhyanchal and Satpura ranges in Central India, and
Sahyadri or Western Ghats on the west coast.
Rivers The main rivers of the Himalayan group are the Indus, Ganga and the Bhramputra. These rivers are both snow-fed and rain-fed and have therefore continuous flow throughout the year. Himalayan rivers discharge about 70% of their inflow into the sea. This includes about 5% from central Indian rivers. They join the Ganga and drain into the Bay of Bengal.
The Indus which the Aryans called the Sindhu, has lent its name to India. Its valleys on both sides have been the seats of civilization. This historic river has five major tributaries - the Jhelum, the Ravi, the Beas and the Sutlej. The Indus rises from the Mount Kailash (the abode of Lord Shiva) in Tibet north of the Himalayas, at an elevation of 5,180 metres and traverses many miles through the Himalayas before it is joined by its tributaries in the Punjab. It travels west and southwest for 2,897 kilometres and empties into the Arabian Sea through several mouths. Thereafter it passes into Sind (Pakistan) to fall into the Arabian Sea.

The Ganga (also Ganges) famous like in legends and history, is considered the most sacred river by the Hindus. It covers, what is called the heartland of India, which was the main centre of the ancient Aryan culture. It is the greatest waterway in India and one of the largest in the world. It is most important to the Indians for the part it plays in the Hindu religion.
Each year, thousands of Hindu pilgrims visit such holy cities as Varanasi and Allahabad along the banks of the Ganga to bathe in the river and to take home some of its water. Temples line the riverbank, and ghats (stairways) lead down to the water. Some pilgrims come to bathe in the water only to cleanse and purify themselves. The sick and crippled come hoping that the touch of the water will cure their ailments. Others come to die in the river, for the Hindus believe that those who die in the Ganga will be carried to Paradise.
The river is an important trade area. Its valley is fertile and densely populated. Some of India's largest cities, such as Calcutta, Howrah, Patna, Varanasi, and Kanpur, stand on its banks. But the Ganga is less important commercially than it once was. Irrigation has drained much of its water and steamers can navigate only in the lower part of the river. The Ganga has its source in an ice cave 3,139 metres above sea level in the Himalayas of northern India. The glacier known as Gangotri gives rise to the river and its several tributaries. The river flows toward the southeast and through Bangladesh for 2,480 kilometres to empty into the Bay of Bengal . Several tributary rivers, including the Yamuna, Ramganga, Gomti, Ghaghra, Son, and Sapt Kosi add to the waters of the Ganga. They spread like a fan in the plain of India thus forming the largest river basin in India, with an area, one quarter of the total area of India. The Brahmaputra River joins some of the branches of the Ganga near its mouth, and together the two rivers form a large delta.

The Brahmaputra is one of the most important waterways of southern Asia. It rises on the northern slopes of the Himalaya in Tibet. After flowing about 2,700 kilometres through northeastern India and Bangladesh, it joins the Ganges (Ganga) River, with which it shares the Ganges Delta. The northern part of the river has many names. It is sometimes called Yarlung Zangbo in Tibet. Boats can sail up the river about 1,300 kilometres, but cannot go farther because of rapids. A bridge erected in 1963 crosses the river near Gauhati, India. The valley of the Brahmaputra, in Assam, has fertile farmland. Large crops of tea, rice, and jute grow there. In the rainy season, the river floods much of the valley, providing natural irrigation for rice growers. The principal branches of the Brahmaputra are the Lohit, Dibong, Dihong, and Subansiri rivers.
The Deccan rivers denuding their beds for long geological days have developed flat valleys with low gradients. The major deccan rivers are the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery, the Pennar, the Mahanadi, the Damodar, the Sharavati, the Netravati, the Bharataphuza, the Periyar, the Pamba, the Narmada and the Tapti. They contribute about 30% of the total outflow in India. These rivers are entirely rain-fed and shrink into rivulets during the hot season
People and Population. About 16 per cent of all the world's people live in India. Only China, which has a population of more than one billion, has more people than India. India is more densely populated than most other countries.Vital statistics:

Population ('99 UN est.) : 998.1 million
Population (2025-projection) : 1,330.2 million
Sex ratio (female/1000 males) : 927
About 73 per cent of India's people live in rural areas. Most of the country's 557,000 farm villages have less than 1,000 people. About 27 per cent of the people live in urban areas. India has about 4,000 cities and towns. About 300 cities have populations over 100,000. Six cities have more than 3 million people. These cities, in order of population size, are Mumbai (Bombay), Delhi, Calcutta, Bangalore, Chennai (Madras), and Hyderabad. Calcutta, the capital city of West Bengal, has the greatest population density of any city in India, with an average of about 42,000 people per square kilometre.
Since the early 1900's, India's population has grown by several million a year. During the 1980's and 1990's, the population increased by as much as 18 million per year. The main reason for this "population explosion" is that improved sanitation and health care have caused the death rate to fall more rapidly than the birth rate. Population growth has led to serious overcrowding. India's city population grows about twice as fast as the population of the country as a whole.

Ancestry. India's people belong to a variety of ethnic groups. The two largest groups are the light-skinned Indo-Aryans and the dark-skinned Dravidians. Most Indo-Aryans live in northern India, and a majority of the Dravidians live in southern parts of the country.
The Dravidians were among India's earliest known inhabitants. About 2500 B.C., they created an advanced civilization in the Indus Valley. About 1500 B.C., the Aryans invaded the Indus Valley and drove the Dravidians south.
Beginning about A.D. 1000, central Asian Islamic peoples, mainly from the area that is now Afghanistan and Iran, settled in India. Many of their descendants live in the northeast, especially in the states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. Mongoloid peoples live in the Himalayan region along India's northeastern border and in the states that border Burma. Most members of such minority groups as the Bhils, Gonds, Khasis, Nagas, Oraons, and Santals live in remote hills and forests.
Climate India is so vast that the climatic conditions are much varied. India has mainly three seasons a year - Winter (mid-October - February), Summer (April-July) and Rainy (June-September : SW Monsoon; October-November : NE Monsoon). The Winter season lasts from October to February. The weather then becomes mild, except in the northern mountains. Snow usually falls in mountainous areas during this season. As the altitude increases, temperatures drop below freezing point (0 °C). No other section of India has temperatures below freezing point. The northern plains may get some frost during this season. Southern India lacks a true cool season, but the weather from October to February is usually not quite as hot as during the rest of the year. The Summer season lasts from March to the end of June. The northern plains get the greatest heat. Temperatures often rise to 49 °C. Temperatures on the coastal plains stay around 29 °C or 32 °C. Cyclones often bring storms to the coastal plains at this time. Parts of the southern plateau remain cool during the hot season. The northern mountains are cool or cold, depending on altitude. The Rainy season lasts from the middle of June to September. During this period, monsoons (seasonal winds) blow across the Indian Ocean, picking up moisture. They reach India from the southeast and southwest, bringing almost all the rain that falls on India. During the other two seasons, monsoons blow from the north or northeast. The southwest monsoons are of great importance to Indian agriculture. If the monsoons bring enough rain to the country, crops will grow. Sometimes they fail to arrive in time, and crops fail as a result. Some monsoons drop too much rain, ruining crops and causing destructive floods. Rain falls most heavily in northeastern India. Some hills and mountain slopes in this region receive an average of about 1,140 centimetres of rain a year. The world's heaviest recorded rainfall for one year fell at Cherrapunji. This village in Meghalaya had 2,647 centimetres of rain from August 1860 to July 1861. The Thar, or Indian, Desert in the northwestern part of the country receives less than 25 centimetres of rain a year. Some sections of the hot, sandy, and rocky, desert get only about 5 centimetres of rain annually

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The 10 Most Healing Bible Verses

The 10 Most Healing Bible Verses

10 Most Healing Verses of the Hebrew Bible

Wisdom and comfort from ancient scriptureFrom Exodus to Isaiah to the Psalms and Proverbs, the Hebrew Bible is rich with verses of healing and comfort for the sick. Beliefnet community member Pearlina gathered a substantial collection of these healing verses, and we share them with you in this gallery. Click through for yourself, send it to an ill friend, and may health and healing be yours.

God's Healing Words

Proverbs 4:20-22My child, be attentive to my words; incline your ear to my sayings. Do not let them escape from your sight; keep them within your heart. For they are life to those who find them, and healing to all their flesh.

God the Master Physician

Exodus 15:26He said, "If you will listen carefully to the voice of the Lord your God, and do what is right in his sight, and give heed to his commandments and keep all his statutes, I will not bring upon you any of the diseases that I brought upon the Egyptians; for I am the Lord who heals you."

God's Healing Love

Psalm 107:19-21Then they cried to the Lord in their trouble, and he saved them from their distress; he sent out his word and healed them, and delivered them from destruction. Let them thank the Lord for his steadfast love, for his wonderful works to humankind.

God Removes Sickness

Exodus 23:25You shall worship the Lord your God, and I will bless your bread and your water; and I will take sickness away from among you.

Turn Away from Illness

Deuteronomy 7:14-15You shall be the most blessed of peoples, with neither sterility nor barrenness among you or your livestock. The Lord will turn away from you every illness.

You Have Healed Me

Psalm 30:2O Lord my God, I cried to you for help, and you have healed me.

A Promise of Healing

Isaiah 53:4-5Surely he has borne our infirmities and carried our diseases; yet we accounted him stricken, struck down by God, and afflicted. But he was wounded for our transgressions, crushed for our iniquities; upon him was the punishment that made us whole, and by his bruises we are whole.

A Merry Heart Will Heal

Proverbs 17:22A cheerful heart is a good medicine, but a downcast spirit dries up the bones.

The Many Blessings of God

Psalm 103:2-5Bless the Lord, O my soul, and do not forget all his benefits--who forgives all your iniquity, who heals all your diseases, who redeems your life from the Pit, who crowns you with steadfast love and mercy, who satisfies you with good as long as you live so that your youth is renewed like the eagle's.

Find Refuge in God

Psalm 91:3-4For he will deliver you from the snare of the fowler and from the deadly pestilence; he will cover you with his pinions, and under his wings you will find refuge; his faithfulness is a shield and buckler.

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Ten Ways Jesus Showed Love

The Way of Humor

There are innumerable moments when Jesus expressed humor. The British theologian C.K. Chesterton, in his classic work, Orthodoxy, concluded that mirth was "the hidden virtue of Jesus." C.S. Lewis wrote that "joy is the serious business of heaven." The Quaker theologian Elton Trueblood, a chaplain at both Harvard and Stanford Universities, wrote The Humor of Christ in 1964 to "challenge the conventionalized picture of a Christ who never laughed." Prayer: Lord, inspire in us the warm humor and mirthful joy that frees all from anxiety.

The Way of Creativity

The parables of Jesus are works of creative brilliance. The great stories of agape love are three: The Good Samaritan, the Prodigal Son, and the Widow's Mite. The first describes the power of compassionate response to echo down through the ages; the second captures the unconditional love of a father even after he has been insulted by his son in every way imaginable; the third shows how much it means when someone who has almost nothing gives a small contribution. Jesus loved people through improvising stories galore, for he was a literary genius. He was also creative in resolving ethical disputes, offering Solomonic resolutions. He had an unusually free creative mind.Prayer: Lord, use our creativity for the best purposes.

The Way of Reverence

Jesus had immense reverence for nature and spent much time in quiet natural settings or on the sea. He constantly showed reverence for the hearth, for the everyday life of the family. While no religious leader had yet bestowed equal status on children, Jesus welcomed them and made them prototypes for those who would enter the Kingdom of Heaven. He respected women in ways that were unheard of at the time. He respected the downtrodden, the blind, the lepers. His respect for life was universal.Prayer: Lord, give us a deep reverence that frees us from the desire to manipulate others.

The Way of Loyalty

Jesus was loyal to Peter after Peter denied him. Even when rejected he was loyal, as in his lament over Jerusalem (Matthew 23:37). He was loyal to the will of God when, before his death, he prayed, "Lord, let this cup pass from my lips; nevertheless, not as I would but as you will." And there was never anyone, however maimed or ill or rejected, whom he did not affirm in loyalty long after everyone else had negated them. Prayer: Lord, keep us loyal even to those who, like ourselves, aren't perfect.

Ten Ways Jesus Showed Love

By Stephen Post Jesus expressed his great love for people in ten dramatic ways. The gospels show us his immense compassion for the suffering, his attentive listening presence, and his energetic celebration of the lives around him. Explore this gallery to see how Jesus demonstrated agape--the Greek word for unconditional, self-sacrificing love--and what we can learn from him.

The Way of Compassion

Jesus is depicted in the gospels as a healer who responded to the needs of the suffering even on the Sabbath and was roundly criticized for this by the authorities. He responded to those who would otherwise have been stoned to death. Compassion was perfectly captured in his parable of the Good Samaritan, a man who responded immediately and directly to a wounded man bleeding by the side of the road. Nothing could make him act in a way contrary to compassion--not a busy schedule or social stigma, as in the case of the Samaritan woman most others would not talk to. Jesus just did what compassion requires, whenever and wherever.Prayer: Lord, deepen our compassion amidst suffering.

The Way of Attentive Listening

In interacting with others, Jesus was extraordinarily attentive, showing a humble willingness to respond in depth to what others had spoken. In his many healings, people cry out to him in need. Simply by listening and a touch, he offered them hope and wholeness. He listened carefully to his enemies and responded to them thoughtfully. He had immense patience with his disciples even when he had every reason to be impatient.Prayer: Lord, humble us for attentive listening so that others feel valued.

The Way of "Carefrontation"

Jesus was a master of caring confrontation. He practiced nonviolent resistance to evil, and it was his teaching and example that would inspire Gandhi and the great African-American Christian leaders of the civil rights movement. Jesus asked Peter to put down his sword; he said that those who live by the sword die by it. But he also confronted spiritual hypocrites and the many moneychangers who had set up shop in the Temple. He was constantly challenging people to think and act lovingly, and this meant that he had often to take the risk of confrontation when he saw destructive attitudes and behaviors around him.Prayer: Lord, strengthen us in the courage to confront evil with wise love rather than malice

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The Way of Generativity

Jesus didn't just help people. He inspired others to do so, and encouraged helping behaviors. Jesus devoted much of his time to making everyday people like James and Peter, ordinary fishermen, into paradigms of agape love. His life can best be understood as a light that has passed the power of agape love down through the ages, from generation to generation, through the church and beyond.Prayer: Lord, prompt us to lend a helping hand to the needy, and be a generative example to others

The Way of Celebration

There are so many times in the New Testament when Jesus celebrates. He attended a wedding feast, he was regularly criticized for drinking a bit of wine with his disciples, and he fed the five thousand. Jesus said that he came that we might have life, "and have it more abundantly" (I John 10:10).Prayer: Lord, let us see all lives as your gifts calling us to gratitude and celebration.

The Way of Forgiveness

Jesus of Nazareth brought forgiveness into the Western world. The great prayer of Christianity states: "Forgive us our trespasses as we forgive those who trespass against us." Jesus asked men ready to throw stones to forgive a woman who had committed adultery. He always taught forbearance and recommended that we avoid judging one another because we all have faults. As he died on the cross, his last words were, "Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do." Prayer: Lord, enable us to forgive and make our apologies meaningful.

The Bible Is Serious about Humor....

The Bible Is Serious about Humor
"Does the Bible have any humor in it?"
The overall plot of the Bible is a U-shaped comic plot. The action begins with a perfect world inhabited by perfect people. It descends into the misery of fallen history and ends with a new world of total happiness and the conquest of evil.
Driscoll also highlights examples of situational comedy (e.g., the story of Jacob and Laban in Genesis 27-29), scatological humor (e.g., Ezekiel 4:12), sarcasm (e.g., Job 38), name calling (e.g., Proverbs 6:6-9; 19:13). The coup de grâce for Driscoll's (or any theological) argument is, of course, Jesus. He used humorous exaggeration (e.g., the log vs. the speck in the eye, the camel through the eye of the needle), ridicule (e.g., how religious people pray, fast and tithe) and some were offended (Matthew 15:12).
So why should we be humorous. Driscoll concludes by saying because:*
Jesus did it.*
Humor defeats religion.*
People take themselves too seriously, and God too lightly.*
Some things are a joke and if you treat them seriously it gives them credence you don't want to give them.*
Just because they are laughing doesn't mean they aren't grieving (Proverbs 14:13).*
It makes us spiritually strong (Nehemiah 8:10).*
It heightens all our other passions.*
It is missiological (1 Corinthians 9:19-23).
Are there any limits then to humor? Driscoll says there are, such as:*
Don't mock God.*
Don't mock everyone.*
Don't mock all the time
Keep looking for the line.* Laugh at yourself.*
Know who to mock.*
Know when to mock.
In general, laughing at ourselves or helping someone laugh at themselves is actually doing them a spiritual service because it nurtures our humility and punctures our arrogance. At the same time it is not always appropriate. But those are exceptions to the rule: Be funny.